Saltwater as a Disinfectant and Cleaning agent for Environmental Surfaces in the context of SARS-COV-II.

 

Radhika G. Sojitra*, Urvi J. Chotaliya

1Pharmaceutical Quality Assurance Department, B. K. Mody Government Pharmacy College,

Rajkot, Gujarat, India.

*Corresponding Author E-mail: rsojitrapharma@gmail.com

 

ABSTRACT:

The WHO has declared the ongoing outbreak as a global public health emergency. Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS COV-II), the etiologic agent of COVID-19 has spread globally in a few months. It is a pandemic, surface to surface communicable disease. This review enlightens the preventive measures such as salt (sodium chloride) water as a selection of surface disinfectant. The application of saltwater is a sustainable and green concept and has several advantages including cost-effectiveness, ease of application, effective disinfection, on-the-spot production, safe for human beings and the environment. As compared to other chemical-based disinfectants and sanitizers, it is better to use on-hand techniques to clean vegetables and fruits, wooden surfaces, toys, and glasses with the most easily available, most economical, and non-toxic material of every house’s kitchen: A Common Salt. A simple saltwater solution containing approx 0.9-1.2% solution can be the cheapest, easiest, quickest, and safest way to clean different kinds of household surfaces to combat this pandemic situation.

 

KEYWORDS: SARS-COV-II, Saltwater, Disinfectant and cleaning agent, Environmental surfaces.

 

 

 

1. INTRODUCTION:

1.1 Introduction of Viruses:

1.1.1 General Structure of Viruses:

Viruses are very small obligate intracellular parasites, which by definition contain either RNA or DNA genome surrounded by a protective, virus-coded protein coat. They may be viewed as mobile genetic elements, most probably of cellular origin and characterized by a long co-evolution of virus and host. A complete virus particle is called a virion.

 

The viral genome, often with associated basic proteins, is packaged inside a symmetric protein capsid. The nucleic acid-associated protein, called nucleoprotein, together with the genome, forms the nucleocapsid. In enveloped viruses, the nucleocapsid is surrounded by a lipid bilayer derived from the modified host cell membrane and studded with an outer layer of the virus envelope glycoprotein.1

 

 

Fig. 1: General structure of a virus

 

Viral envelopes are acquired at host cell membranes-some at the plasma membrane, others at internal cell membranes such as the nuclear membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi complex. One kind is the glycoprotein peplomer (peplos = envelope) or spike. These peplomers can often be seen clearly in electron micrographs as projections from the outer surface of the envelope. Arenaviruses, Bunyaviruses, and Coronaviruses have no matrix protein and consequently are rather more pleomorphic than other enveloped viruses.2

 

1.1.2 Virus Core Structure:

Except in helical nucleocapsids, little is known about the packaging or organization of the viral genome within the core. Small virions are simple nucleocapsids containing 1 to 2 protein species. The larger viruses contain in a core the nucleic acid genome complexed with basic protein(s) and protected by a single- or double-layered capsid (consisting of more than one species of protein) or by an envelope.

 

Fig. 2: Two-dimensional diagram of HIV-1 correlating (immuno-) electron microscopic findings with the recent nomenclature for the structural components in a 2-letter code and with the molecular weights of the virus structural (glyco-) proteins. [SU stands for outer surface glycoprotein, TM for transmembrane GP, MA for membrane-associated or matrix protein, LI for core-envelope-link, CA for major capsid, and NC for nucleocapsid protein, respectively. PR, RT, and IN represent the virus-coded enzymes protease, reverse transcriptase, and integrase that are functional during the life cycle of a retrovirus.]1

 

 

1.1.3 Introduction to SARS-COV-II:

Coronavirus (COV) is a single-stranded RNA virus with a diameter of 80-120nm. Novel Coronaviruses are a group of viruses that cause diseases in mammals and birds that include diarrhea in cows and pigs, and upper respiratory disease in chickens. In humans, the virus causes respiratory infections, which are often mild, but in rare cases are potentially lethal.3 It is divided into four types:4 1. α-coronavirus (α-COV), 2. β-coronavirus (β-COV), 3. δ-coronavirus (δ-COV) and 4. γ - coronavirus (γ-COV)

 

1.1.3.1 Genetic structure of SARS-COV-II:

 

 

Fig. 3: Genetic structure of SARS-COV-II5

 

1.3.2 Pathogenic mechanism:

Six coronaviruses were previously known to cause disease in humans; SARS-COV-II is the seventh member of the coronavirus family that infects human beings after SARS-CoV (since 2003) and MERS-CoV (since 2012).6 SARS-COV-II, like SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV, belongs to β-coronavirus. The genome sequence homology of SARS-COV-II and SARS is about 79%, the 2019-nCoV is closer to the SARS-like bat CoVs (MG772933) than the SARS-CoV7. Interestingly, for the high similarity of the receptor-binding domain (RBD) in Spike-protein, several analyses reveal that SARS-COV-II uses angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as a receptor, just like as SARS-CoV.8 As viral nucleocapsids enclosed viral RNA to produce new coronavirus virions, they are exocytosed which leads to the completion of the replication cycle.9 Coronavirus, a cytoplasmic RNA virus, un-folds yet another mechanism of joining RNA, which involves the use of a free leader RNA molecule.10 Coronavirus mainly recognizes the corresponding receptor on the target cell through the S protein on its surface and enters into the cell, then causing the occurrence of infection. A structure model analysis shows that SARS-COV-II binds ACE2 with above 10 folds higher affinity than SARS-CoV, but higher than the threshold required for virus infection. The detailed mechanism about whether the SARS-COV-II would infect humans via binding of S-protein to ACE2, how strong the interaction is for risk of human transmission, and how SARS-COV-II causes pathological mechanisms of organs damage remains unknown, which need more studies to elaborate.11 The occurrence and development of SARS-COV-II depend on the interaction between the virus and the individual’s immune system. Viral factors include virus type, mutation, viral load, viral titer, and viability of the virus in vitro.12

 

1.3.3 Transmission of SARS-COV-II:

Previous epidemiological studies have proved that there are three conditions for the widespread of the virus, i.e. the source of infection, route of transmission, and susceptibility.13 There is no exception for SARS-COV-II. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the transmission of SARS-COV-II occurs mostly person-to-person via respiratory droplets within a range of 180 cm. The virus can also be transmitted if a person touches a mucosal surface after touching an object with the virus on it.14

 

 

Fig. 4: Environmental factors and transmission of SARS-COV-II15

 

Human-to-human transmission of the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-II) occurs most often when people are in the incubation stage of the disease or are carriers and have no symptoms. Therefore, the role of environmental factors and conditions such as temperature, humidity, wind speed as well as food, water and sewage, air, insects, inanimate surfaces, and hands in COVID-19 transmission. The results of studies on the stability of the SARS-COV-II on different levels showed that the resistance of this virus on smooth surfaces was higher than others. Temperature increase and sunlight can facilitate the destruction of SARS-COV-II and the stability of it on surfaces. Also, SARS-COV-II transmission through food, food packages, and food handlers has not been identified as a risk factor for the disease.15 Transmission may also occur through fomites in the immediate environment around the infected person. Therefore, the transmission of the COVID-19 virus can occur by direct contact with infected people and indirect contact with surfaces in the immediate environment or with objects used on the infected person like a stethoscope or thermometer.16 Consumption of alcohol will not kill the virus in the inhaled air; it will not disinfect your mouth and throat, and it will not give you any kind of protection against COVID-19.17

 

1.2 Introduction of Disinfectant and Sanitizer:

Germ-killing products are used in foodservice and health care. Although the germs (bacteria, fungi, and viruses) are too small to see unless, under a microscope, these microorganisms can cause serious or fatal diseases. Protecting consumers from food-borne illness is one of the primary responsibilities of the Food Service Industry (FSI), while the Health Care and Hospitality Industries (HCHI) wage an ongoing war against germs in a hotel, resident, operating, and patients’ rooms. While the goal of killing germs is the same, the weapons used are different. Food Service professionals use products called sanitizers, while HCHI professionals use disinfectants.18 Hand washing and hand sanitizers reduce microbial populations in different ways. Hand washing -whether done with “antibacterial” soap or plain soap- physically removes micro-organisms from the skin, literally washing the live microbes down the drain. Hand sanitizers reduce levels of micro-organisms by killing them chemically, just like disinfectants kill germs on environmental surfaces.19

 

1.2.1 Disinfectant:

An agent that frees an inanimate body (generally hard nonporous surfaces) from infection by destroying microorganisms. Disinfectants kill 100% of certain microorganisms, but they are not used on people, only inanimate surfaces. Because disinfectants do not kill all microorganisms, especially bacterial spores, they are different from sterilants.18

 

1.2.2 Sanitizer:

An agent that reduces the number of disease-causing (pathogenic) bacteria on an inanimate food contact surface to safe levels as judged by public health requirements. A sanitizer generally is a chemical that kills 99.999% of specific test bacteria in a specified amount of time.18

 

 

1.2.3 Difference between disinfectant and sanitizer:18

Table 1: Difference:

Parameters

Disinfectants

Sanitizers

Contact time

The surface must stay wet for a minimum of ten minutes unless otherwise listed on the label.

Must contact the surface for a minimum of one minute when used in such applications as three tank sinks, clean-in-place (CIP) systems, and hard surface sanitizing.

Scent

They are not applied to food surfaces, so they often have lemon, pine, floral, herbal, or other scents added to them to leave a fresh scent after the disinfection.

They cannot have artificial scents added. Sanitizers are applied to food contact surfaces thus there can be no residual that might give an off-flavor to food.

Chemical used

They are made from quaternary ammonium compounds, chlorine (sodium hypochlorite bleach), accelerated Hydrogen Peroxide (AHP), or phenolics.

Sanitizers are chlorine, quats, iodine, and acid-anionic.

The concentration of chemicals used

They are used at concentrations that will leave a potentially dangerous residue because the primary concern is germ-killing, not food safety.

They are used at low concentrations to avoid leaving a residue that could be harmful to people or food,

Kill rates

Claim to kill 100% of the bacteria, fungi, and viruses

Claim to kill a minimum of 99.999% of the specific test bacteria

 

 

1.2.4 Classification of disinfectants:

Disinfectants are classified as follows;20

1.     Air disinfectants: Ex. Propylene glycol and Triethylene glycol

2.     Chemical disinfectants:

·       Organic

Ex. Alcohols, Aldehydes, Phenol and its derivatives, Quaternary ammonium compound, Terpenes, Lactic acid.

·       Inorganic

Ex. Acids and Bases, Metals, Iodine, Chlorine

3.     Non-chemical disinfectants: Ex. Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation

4.     Oxidizing disinfectants: Ex. Electrolyzed water, Hydrogen peroxide, Ozone, Potassium permanganate (KMnO4).

5.     Home disinfectants: Ex. Sodium hypochlorite, Vinegar, Salt solution, Baking soda.

6.     Other’s disinfectants: Ex. Biguanide polymer, Detergents and Soaps, Sodium bicarbonate: (NaHCO3), Dyes.

 

1.2.4.1 Surface disinfectant:

Surfaces are the most favourable site for the transmission of COVID-19 infection from one to another. Surfaces, including our hands, play an important part in the spread of viruses. Depending on the nature of the surface, pH, temperature, humidity of the environment, the virus's persistence time may vary. The persistence time in different surfaces or objects is mentioned in this table.21

 

Table 2: persistence time in different surfaces or objects21

Virus persistence time

Type of surfaces or objects

Less than 24 hrs/ 1 day

Aluminum, surgical gloves

1-2 days

Steel, disposal grown

3-4 days

Wood, plastic, glass

More than 5 days

Ceramic, Teflon, paper, silicon

 

The characteristic feature of an ideal disinfectant must have low contact time with significant antiviral activity. Currently, USEPA recommended some disinfectant against COVID-19 as mentioned in this table.22

 

 

Table 3: List of disinfectants for use against SARS-COV-II/CoVID-19 as per USEPA22

Sr. No.

Active Ingredients

Contact Time(min.)

1

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds

10

2

Hydrogen Peroxide

5

3

Phenolic Compounds

10

4

Octanoic Acid

2

5

Hypochlorous Acid

10

6

Citric Acid

1

7

Sodium Hypochlorite

0.5

8

Ethanol

0.5

 

1.2.5 Compatibility of disinfectants with different surfaces and chemicals:

A. Surface Compatibility:

Not all products are compatible with all surfaces. The table below lists each active ingredient’s surface incompatibilities based on information in the EPA-approved label of the evaluated products. It is important to note that the information reported for each active ingredient in the table may not apply to every evaluated product.23

 

 

Table 4: Potential surface incompatibilities for disinfectant active ingredients:23

ACTIVE INGREDIENT

SURFACE INCOMPATIBILITY

Hydrogen Peroxide

Not recommended for use on aluminum, wood, natural stone, porous plastic, rubber. Corrosive to metals.

Hydrogen Peroxide, Accelerated (AHP)

Not recommended for use on copper, brass, granite, marble, or zinc.

Quaternary Ammonium Chloride Compounds (Quats)

Not recommended for use on finished wood floors, marble, copper, aluminum, brass, painted surfaces, fabric, and acrylic plastic. Stainless steel may become damaged from prolonged exposure.

Lactic Acid

Not recommended for use on finished wood, floors/ surfaces, marble, brass, or acrylic plastic (including outdoor patio furniture).

Sodium Hypochlorite (Chlorine Bleach)

Prolonged contact with metal may cause pitting or discoloration. Do not use copper and iron. Will corrode aluminum. May cause damage to fabric/clothing (bleaching).

Salt Solution

Metals may get corrosive and discoloration. Do not use iron mostly. May cause damage to fabric/clothing (bleaching).

 

Table 5: Potential chemical incompatibilities for selected active ingredients:23

ACTIVE INGREDIENT

CHEMICAL INCOMPATIBILITY

Hydrogen Peroxide

Do not mix with bleach or other household products.

Hydrogen Peroxide, Accelerated (AHP)

Do not mix with ammonia, bleach, or other chlorinated compounds. May react to release hazardous gases.

Quaternary Ammonium Chloride Compounds (Quats)

Mixing with sodium hypochlorite may release small amounts of formaldehyde gas. Do not mix with bleach or other household products.

Lactic Acid

Do not mix with bleach or other household chemicals.

Sodium Hypochlorite (Chlorine Bleach)

Reacts with other household chemicals such as toilet bowl cleaners, rust removers, vinegar, acids, or ammonia-containing products to produce hazardous gases, such as chlorine and other chlorinated species.

Salt Solution

Do not mix with household chemicals because it may produce chlorinated species.

 

B. Chemical Compatibility:

Surface disinfectants and sanitizers should not be mixed or other cleaning chemicals. Doing so can sometimes cause dangerous – and potentially lethal – gases to form. The table below lists each active ingredient’s chemical incompatibilities based on information in the EPA-approved label of the evaluated products. It is important to note that the information reported for each active ingredient in the table may not apply to every evaluated product.23 (Table-5).

 

1.3 Common Salt (NaCl):

1.3.1 Chemistry:

Sodium chloride is commonly known as salt (although sea salt also contains other chemical salts), is an ionic compound, representing a 1:1 ratio of sodium and chloride ions. sodium chloride is the salt most responsible for the salinity of seawater and the extracellular fluid of many multicellular organisms. In its edible form of table salt, it is commonly used as a condiment and food preservative. Large quantities of sodium chloride are used in many industrial processes, and it is a major source of sodium and chlorine compounds used as feedstocks for further chemical syntheses.16 Salt has been used throughout history as a natural cleaning product, as well as an oral irrigator and a cleanser for wounds. The salt draws the moisture away from the inflamed area to clear away bacteria and fungus while reducing mucus.24 Since at least medieval times, people have used salt as a cleansing agent rubbed on household surfaces. It is also used in many brands of shampoo, toothpaste, and popularly to de-ice driveways and patches of ice. Nasal spray often contains a saline solution. Many microorganisms cannot live in a salty environment; water is drawn out of their cells by osmosis. For this reason, salt is used to preserve some foods, such as bacon, fish, or cabbage. Emesis can also be caused by pharyngeal placement of a small amount of plain salt or salt crystals.24

 

1.3.2 Mechanism of NaCl:

Due to osmosis, Salt triggers osmosis by attracting the water and causing it to move toward it, across the membrane. Salt is a solute. When you add water to a solute, it diffuses, spreading out the concentration of salt, creating a solution. If the concentration of salt inside a cell is the same as the concentration of salt outside the cell, the water level will stay the same, creating an isotonic solution. Cells will not gain or lose water if placed in an isotonic solution. Water in cells moves toward the highest concentration of salt. If there is more salt in a cell than outside it, the water will move through the membrane into the cell, causing it to increase in size, swelling up as the water fills the cell in its imperative to combine with the salt. If a higher concentration of salt is placed outside of the cell membrane, the water will leave the cell to bond with it. The loss of water from this movement causes microorganism cells to shrink and wilt.25

 

1.3.3 Uses:

The most common use for salt is in food and as a disinfectant. Its uses include: food seasoning, acting as a natural preservative, enhancing the natural colors of foods, curing, or preserving, meats, creating brine for marinating foods. There’s also a wide variety of household uses, such as: cleaning pots and pans, preventing mold, removing stains and grease.

 

It’s important to consult a doctor and only use medical saline products (excluding over-the-counter products like contact solution) for the body as prescribed. Different types of saline solutions will contain different ratios of sodium chloride to water. Saline that’s used for different purposes may also have additional chemicals or compounds added in.26

 

1.3.4 Side effects/Toxicity:

Common salt (Sodium Chloride) is not a harmful chemical as such - it is normal white table salt, which we eat every day through our food - bathing in a product containing a high volume of salt can dry out your skin and cause itchiness and cracked skin.24For rare conditions, saline solution along with its needed effects, a medicine may cause some unwanted effects. Although not all of these side effects may occur, if they do occur, they may need medical attention. Check with your doctor immediately if any of the following side effects occur:27 Fast heartbeat, fever, hives, itching, rash, irritation, Joint pain, stiffness, or swelling, redness of the skin, shortness of breath, swelling of the eyelids, face, lips, hands, or feet, Tightness in the chest, troubled breathing or swallowing.

 

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS:

2.1 Production of Salt Solution using common ingredients at home:

The term Saline solution refers to a salt solution, which you can prepare yourself using readily available materials at home. The solution can be used as a disinfectant or sterile rinse or for lab work. This recipe is for a normal salt solution, meaning it is the same concentration as, or isotonic to, body fluids. The salt in a saline solution discourages bacterial growth while rinsing away contaminants. Because the salt composition is similar to that of the body, it causes less tissue damage than you would get from pure water.28

 

Materials:

A saline solution results whenever you mix any salt with water. However, the easiest saline solution consists of sodium chloride (table salt) in water. If, for example, you are simply rinsing your mouth with saline solution as a dental rinse, you can mix any amount of table salt with warm water and call it good. If, however, you are cleaning a wound or want to use the saline solution for your eyes, it's important to use pure ingredients and maintain sterile conditions.28 Here, are the ingredients: Salt: You can use salt from the grocery store. It's best to use non-iodized salt, which doesn't have iodine added to it. Avoid using rock salt or sea salt, since the added chemicals may cause problems for some purposes. Water: Use distilled water or reverse osmosis purified water instead of ordinary tap water. Use 9 grams of salt per liter of water or 1 teaspoon of salt per cup (8 fluid ounces) of water for general purposes. For surface disinfectant of washing vegetables purpose the concentration required for that is 1 dessert spoon (approx 10 gm) per 1 liter or 10 dessert spoons for 10-liter bottle/bucket.

 

Preparation:

For a mouth rinse, simply dissolve the salt into very warm water. You might wish to add a teaspoon of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). For a sterile solution, dissolve the salt in boiling water. Keep the solution sterile by placing a lid on the container so that no microorganisms can get into the liquid or airspace as the solution cools. You can pour the sterile solution into sterile containers. Sterilize containers either by boiling them or by treating them with a disinfecting solution, such as the type sold for home brewing or making wine. It's a good idea to label the container with the date and to discard it if the solution isn't used within a few days. This solution could be used for treating new piercings or for wound care. It's important to avoid contaminating the liquid, so ideally make just as much solution as you need at a time, allow it to cool, and discard leftover liquid.28

 

2.2 Production of electrolyzed water at industry level using NaCl:

EW is produced in an electrolysis chamber containing a dilute NaCl solution. The chamber includes a diaphragm (membrane or septum), which is used to separate the cathode and anode. Current is passed through the EW generator, whereas voltage is generated between the electrodes, with the voltage and current values set at 9–10 V and 8–10 A, respectively.29-30 upon the onset of the electrolysis process, NaCl dissolves in water and dissociates into positively and negatively charged ions (Na+ and Cl−, respectively). Meanwhile, hydroxide (OH−) and hydrogen (H+) ions are also formed in the solution. The negatively charged ions (OH− and Cl−) move toward the anode where electrons are released and hypochlorous acid (HOCl), hypochlorite ion (−OCl), hydrochloric acid (HCl), oxygen gas (O2), and chlorine gas (Cl2) are generated. However, positively charged ions (Na+ and H+) move toward the cathode where they gain electrons, resulting in the generation of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrogen gas (H2).31 Two types of EW are generated simultaneously. At the anode, an acidic solution with a pH of 2 to 3, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) >1100 mV, and available chlorine concentration (ACC) of 10 to 90 ppm are produced. This solution is referred to as acidic electrolyzed water (AEW) or electrolyzed oxidizing water (EOW).32 NEW is produced by mixing the anodic solution with OH− ions or by using a single-cell unit (without diaphragm) from NaCl or HCl, whereas SAEW is produced by electrolysis of HCl alone or in combination with NaCl in a single cell unit without diaphragm.33

 

Fig. 7: Generation of AEW and AlEW in an electrolytic cell, consisting of anode and cathode connected through an external power supply and separated by a septum or diaphragm. The chemical reactions initiated simultaneously at each electrode are summarized as follows:29

At anode: 2NaCl → Cl2 (g) + 2e─ + 2Na+, 2H2O (l) → 4H+ (aq) + O2 (g) + 4e─, Cl2 + H2O (l) → HCl + HOCl,

At cathode: 2H2O (l) + 2e─ → 2OH─ (aq) + H2 (g), 2NaCl + 2OH─ →2NaOH + Cl─.

AEW is obtained from the anode, whereas AlEW is obtained from the cathode.

 

2.3 Method for Natural Disinfectants: Common Kitchen Ingredients:

2.3.1 Vinegar:

one of the simplest methods to make a natural disinfectant is to combine one part of vinegar with one part of distilled water. This solution can successfully kill illness-causing bacteria from stainless steel, ceramic, wood, and glass surfaces.34

 

2.3.1.1 Basic vinegar-based spray.

In a standard-sized glass spray bottle, add 1 part water, 1 part vinegar, and 5-15 drops of 100% essential oil. You can use whichever essential oil whose scent you prefer, or customize the scent according to what room in your home you are cleaning. Vinegar-based disinfectants will not work to disinfect surfaces from viruses, including the novel coronavirus. Lemon essential oil is traditionally used to clean the kitchen, as the lemon scent can neutralize strong kitchen smells. Tea tree and eucalyptus oil are great for neutralizing bathroom odors. You may prefer to use milder-smelling essential oils such as chamomile or vanilla in the parts of your houses where you are not worried about eliminating odors. Essential oils can sometimes react with plastic, which is why you should use a glass spray bottle.34

 

2.3.1.2 Vinegar and Baking soda spray.

In a clean bowl or bucket, add 4 cups (950ml) of hot water, 1⁄4 cup (59ml) of white vinegar, and 2 table spoons (28.8g) of baking soda. Mix until the baking soda dissolves, then cut a lemon in half and squeeze both halves into the solution. Drop both rinds of the lemon into the mixture and wait for it to cool. Vinegar and baking soda are not effective against all viruses. Once cooled, add 4 drops of lemon essential oil or the essential oil of your choice. Strain the mixture through a fine sieve to remove any lemon pulp, seeds, or rind, then transfer the mixture into a spray bottle.35

 

2.3.2 Baking soda:

Hot water (4 parts) can be mixed with 1/4 part of vinegar and two tablespoons of baking soda. Use this solution to clean and disinfect your kitchen or house. You can also add few drops of essential oil and the juice of a lemon. Secondly, take 300ml water, 150ml baking soda and pour 150ml vodka in the bottle and shake well. This solution is safe to use on any surface, including natural stones.35

 

3. Applications in Various Areas:

3.1 Applications in vegetables and fruits:

Salt water is isotonic and not irritating to mucous membranes, this is why salt water is more useful for disinfecting vegetables and fruits. For washing the vegetables and fruits salt water must be used. This way, salt water can be an effective tool to reduce the viral or microbial count on vegetables and fruits or food industries.36 Do not wash the fruits and vegetables with soap and water. All soaps contain formaldehyde, which if consumed can cause an upset stomach. You can make a simple solution at home by mixing two tablespoons of salt, half a cup of vinegar, and two liters of water. Soak the vegetables and fruits in the solution for five minutes before rinsing them with clean running water. As per the guidelines by FSSAI, you can wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly under running tap water, or to be extra cautious you can put a drop of 50ppm chlorine in warm water and dip vegetables into it. [News release: Times of India, July 22, 2020.]

 

3.2 Applications in poultry and meat and agriculture:

Microbial contamination in pork and meat is a vital factor linked to meat quality. Many intervention technologies including chlorine and EW treatment have been applied to reduce microbial contamination in meat and poultry. Food safety and quality must be ensured during both pre-harvest and post-harvest processing such as during handling, cleaning, and washing of raw materials, in pipelines and utensils, as well as during packaging. In recent years, consumers are highly interested in obtaining a high-quality safe product. Meanwhile, the emergence of salt water as a treatment method is an important landmark development, because it can be applied on-site by spraying or soaking methods, and helps prevent diseases and promotes growth with enhanced quality of produce.36

 

3.3 Application of salt water in hospitals:

The increasing number of diagnostic examinations around the world increases the possibility of hard surface contamination in hospitals with potentially dangerous microorganisms from infected patients. These surfaces represent possible sources of infection for medical staff and other patients. The potential use of salt water in diagnostic rooms and equipment such as computer tomographs and magnetic resonance imaging scanners.36 Regularly washing and sanitizing hands and your house or workspace, also wearing mouth mask, gloves, and head capes while going out for work or market, also try to take bath after coming from outside or market like crowded places. Wearing personal protective equipment kit if visiting doctors, for health professionals especially while treating patients, while traveling or coming in association with COVID patients.37

 

3.4 Application of salt water on contact surfaces and tools in the food industry:

Bacterial cross-contamination can occur from the preparation equipment and tableware during food processing. Improper cleaning and sanitization of the tools used in the food industry were reported as a serious problem by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA 2009). Thus, the cleaning and sanitization of these tools should be optimized to ensure food safety. In this context, salt water has been employed as a novel sanitizing agent to reduce the bacterial count on food contact surfaces to acceptable levels.36

 

3.5 Gentle Antiseptic for Cuts and Wounds and Prevention of Mould and Algae Growth:

Open wounds and cuts are prone to infections. The use of this ‘salt and water’ solution will destroy microorganisms that will cause infections and diseases. Finally, cover the wound with a band-aid. Diluted chlorine is an excellent way to prevent the growth of mold and algae. Another alternative method is to use a ‘salt and water’ solution, which is eco-friendly and prevents our hands from irritations.38

 

3.6 Sanitizing of Utensils and Food Containers:

Many people will feel that sanitizing utensils is an act of ‘kiasi’. Honestly, it is not. Sanitizing is to reduce the number of microorganisms, and this sanitizing is performed after cleaning. It is important to note that all surfaces that will come into contact with food must be cleaned and sanitized.38

 

 

3.7 Antibacterial Spray for Face, Body, and Hands:

We come in contact with pathogen germs every day. Invisible to our eyes, these microorganisms could cause health problems such as food poisoning, flu, and HFMD (hand foot, and mouth disease). Apply ‘salt and water’ solution on your face, body, and hands to eliminate these pathogenic germs effectively.38 Use a mix of household bleach and water (1/3 cup bleach per gallon of water, or 4 teaspoons bleach per quart of water) or a household cleaner that’s approved to treat SARS-COV-II. You can check the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) website to see if yours made the list.39

 

Commonly, Hydrogen peroxide, Quaternary Ammonium Compounds, Alcohol (ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, phenol), Aldehyde, Hypochlorous acid, Octanoic acid, Sodium hypochlorite, Sodium bicarbonate, etc. are the key ingredients for the virucidal activity.40-57

 

 

4. Comparision of Chemical Disinfectant with Salt Water:40-59

Disinfectants

Hypochlorous Acid

Quaternary Ammonium Compounds

Hydrogen Peroxide

Concentration

0.002-0.02%

1-5%

3-6%

Mechanism of action

In an aqueous solution, it dissociates into H+ and OCl–, denaturing and aggregating proteins.

They mostly inactivate viruses by solvating and disrupting lipid envelopes or membranes.

It decomposes to form water, oxygen, and the highly reactive hydroxyl free radicals, which can cleave or crosslink a large range of biomolecules.

Uses

It is effective in decontaminating inert surfaces carrying noroviruses and other enteric viruses in a 1-minute contact time.

Reaction times shorter than 1 min produced no virucidal effect, while the minimum effective conc. at 5 min is mostly double that of the MEC for a 10 min reaction.

Disinfectant at a concentration of 0.5% and a contact time of 1 min showed a log10 reduction in infectivity.

Toxicity/ Side-Effects

It can damage the mucous membranes of the airways.

It can cause toxic effects by all routes of exposure including inhalation, ingestion, and dermal application.

It can cause blisters in the mouth and inflammation of the abdomen and can lead to diarrhea and vomiting

Surface Compatibility

Prolonged contact with metal may cause pitting or discoloration. Do not use with copper and iron

Not recommended for use on finished wood floors, marble, copper, aluminum, brass, painted surfaces, fabric.

Not recommended for use on aluminum, wood, natural stone, porous plastic, rubber. Corrosive to metals.

Chemical Compatibility

Reacts with other household chemicals such as rust removers, vinegar, or ammonia containing products to produce hazardous gases

Mixing with sodium hypochlorite may release small amounts of formaldehyde gas.

Do not mix with bleach or other household products

Cost

Rs. 80/kg

Rs. 250/500 ml

Rs. 25/kg

Continue…

Disinfectants

Alcohols

Aldehydes

Salt (NaCl) water

Concentration

20-70%

0.2-0.4%

0.9-1.2 %

Mechanism of action

They are capable of inactivating a wide spectrum of bacteria, fungi, and viral activities.

They can react with the reactive functional groups can form inter-and intramolecular cross-links with these biomolecules that destroy their activity.

Salt triggers osmosis by attracting the water to move toward it, across the membrane.

Uses

The use of alcohol is also limited as it only inactivates lipid viruses

It used to decontaminate surgical equipment, endoscopes, and dialyzers in clinical settings,

Food seasoning, acting as a natural preservative, enhancing the natural colors of foods, curing, or preserving.

Toxicity/ Side-Effects

It has detrimental effects on the eyes and is absorbed through the skin.

it is known to cause dermatitis and irritation to mucous in the eyes, nose, and mouth

Salt is not a harmful chemical as such - it is normal white table salt,

Surface Compatibility

Not recommended for use on copper, brass, granite, marble, or zinc

Not recommended for use on finished wood, floors/ surfaces, marble, brass

Metals may get corrosive and discoloration. Do not use iron mostly.

Chemical Compatibility

Do not mix with ammonia, bleach, or other chlorinated compounds. May react to release hazardous gases

Do not mix with bleach or other household chemicals

Do not mix with household chemicals because it may produce chlorinated species.

Cost

Rs. 300/ 500 ml

Rs. 1000 / 500 ml

Rs. 15/kg

 

 

5. CONCLUSION:

We have lived with pathogens for thousands of years. The recent Wuhan Coronavirus has infected many countries and spreading faster than its cousins, SARS and MERS. When such life-threatening viruses strike, popular household brands like Dettol, Clorox, and 3M will come into our minds. Hand sanitizers, disinfectants, and face masks will be wiped off the shelves due to increased demand throughout the pandemic year. While, face masks prevent the spreading of viruses when we cough, sneeze, and talk, disinfectant uses chemicals to destroy these microorganisms effectively on different surfaces and many household food items. But, many of us know that chemicals are not eco-friendly and can cause skin irritations, especially to sensitive skin. This is why saltwater can be a better alternative to other costly and toxic chemical disinfectants or sanitizers. Nowadays, many vegetables and fruits wash liquids has been come in the market which also includes NaCl but also contain some other chemicals, which is making the product not economical and unsafe to overcome this, it is better to use an on hand techniques to clean vegetables and fruits, wooden surfaces, toys, and glasses with most easily available, most economical and non-toxic material of every house’s kitchen: A Common Salt. A simple single-step preparation of fresh household salt solution in form of wipers and spray can be a better alternative to make our house free from germs effectively during this pandemic time. From above all information, it is concluded that the use of a simple saltwater solution containing approx 0.9-1.2% solution (it must be varied to higher concentration for the different kinds of domestic purposes) can be the cheapest, easiest, quickest, and safest way to clean different kinds of household surfaces to combat this pandemic situation.

 

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Received on 21.01.2021            Modified on 20.02.2021

Accepted on 13.03.2021      ©Asian Pharma Press All Right Reserved

Asian J. Res. Pharm. Sci. 2021; 11(2):165-174.

DOI: 10.52711/2231-5659.2021-11-2-13